Expanding Global Awareness Regulate Prostitution - 1770 Words

Expanding Global Awareness to Regulate Prostitution The subject of prostitution is a societal reality affecting everyone’s lives, whether people are aware of it or not. Its effects influence societies on many levels whether it’s the health market, social or moral amongst others. For many nations the sex trade market is oppressed and can be very dangerous because of its current legal status, to some extent forcing its operations into hands of organized crime. Crimes associated with prostitution like human trafficking and sexual abuse of minors continues to prevail because of this situation. The focus on preventative measures of those crimes are lacking because of the resources used to incriminate prostitutes and their clientele. The†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Sex work involves the exchange of sexual services for material compensation as well as the selling of erotic performances and products† (R. Weitzer 3). A very visual form of prostitution that is mostly located in Holland are Window Brothels. Window B rothels are setup in designated areas exposing about a dozen rooms on street level with a red light, illuminating the window with, â€Å"a (sexually inviting) dressed prostitute presenting themselves and the services they offer on clear display† (Huisman, Hans 609). A more secretive form takes place in private clubs, usually done in back rooms. Escort services which are growing in popularity as a result of the internet and cell phones, is where people can call to have a prostitute come to a certain location to provide sexual services (Huisman, Hans 611). Sole proprietors typically receive clients at their home, which in most cases are operated with two to three individuals per residence (R. Weitzer 121). Street prostitution is where prostitutes present themselves on the street to conduct services wherever the client would like to take them. Generally street prostitution is the most dangerous of all forms with a greater potential for harm, infection and abduction (R. Weitzer 1 50). Current working conditions regarding sex work in unregulated countries vary depending whether that country is developing or developed (R. Weitzer 23). Another dependant is of what social class and condition the worker is currently at. Regarding

Leading Change Within An Organization - 808 Words

Leading change within an organization is challenging regardless of the leader adeptness. Therefore, there are ten necessities to potent transformation if the organization desires a positive outcome. 1. Communicate and then communicate more- it goes without saying communication should be early and often, and seems like this point is obvious when it comes to leading change. However, the significance of utilizing the correct technique is a critical component of communication. In essence, delivering appropriate messages, soliciting feedback, preparing those impact by the change, and motivating others to act aid in achieving the desired outcome (Gilley, Gilley, McMillan, 2009). Consequently, communications should be enthusiastic and impactful focusing on the benefits. 2. Expound on the rationale behind the change- leaders are culpable to motivate individuals on how the proposed modification will help them and the organization. Then, let everyone in the organization know the role they play in making the vision become a reality. In general, building consensus focuses on an explaining the efforts rather than forcing an approach down a person s throat. Finally, active leadership encourages employees to question the reasons to maintain a competitive advantage. 3. Solicit feedback and ask for perspective- To transform an organization, leaders must have their pulse on the thoughts of those charged with leading the alteration initiatives. 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Media and the Vietnam and Iraq Wars Free Essays

Despite the differences in American culture from the time of the Vietnam war to the Iraq war, similarities exist in the way Americans perceived both wars. Vietnam and Iraq both raised questions about the appropriateness of U.S. We will write a custom essay sample on Media and the Vietnam and Iraq Wars or any similar topic only for you Order Now involvement in foreign affairs and, in some cases, resulted in negative perceptions of the U.S. military. As the link between those fighting the war and those at home watching and reading about the events of the war, the media played an important role in both cases. Relationship between the media and the military During the beginning of Vietnam there was no official policy of censorship. Censorship would have been difficult to manage because as a guest of South Vietnam, the U.S. would have had to allow the South Vietnamese to control the censorship. Additionally, according to Daniel Hallin, the U.S. administration wanted to deny that there was a war happening there, and to impose censorship is one of the signs that a country is really going to war. 1 By 1963, reporters in Vietnam had begun receiving increasingly contradictory information about the war. Military officials in Saigon maintained that the war was going well, while personnel in the field told a different story. One glaring example was the defeat of the South Vietnamese at Ap Bac. Eight days after the incident, military officials declared the operation a success. Reporter Mal Browne recalls that when the astonished press challenged this statement, they were told by the Commander in Chief of U.S. forces to â€Å"get on the team.†1 This was the beginning of a more strained relationship between the media and the military. It was in 1963 also that news programs were extended to a half hour and began showing footage of the war. This was the first time American viewers were able to experience the war right in their living rooms. In 1965, Morley Safer brought the Cam Ne report to viewers. The Cam Ne incident marked the first time the average American was exposed to images of their soldiers engaged in activities that were less than noble – burning huts in a small village as women and children ran away screaming. Though not officially tied to the report, shortly after it aired the government issued new rules of engagement designed to protect South Vietnamese civilians. By the time the U.S. engaged in war with Iraq, the world had become a different place. The military had learned the value of public perception and the need to manage it. Restrictions were placed on the press limiting where they were allowed to go and what they were allowed to report. Unfortunately for the administration, what they couldn’t manage was the amount of amateur footage that made its way into the public eye. Digital cameras and the internet made it possible for anyone to post photos and other footage in front of a broad audience. Some of the most sensational stories reported during the war – including the Abu Ghraib incident – were the result of amateur photography that found its way into professional media outlets. While of questionable value as a news source, this footage showing graphic scenes intrigued viewers and affected their perception of the U.S. military and their mission in Iraq. Another effect of technology was that reporters were able to feed information to networks â€Å"real time.† This to-the-second coverage allowed viewers to experience the war as it happened, but the information they received was not always accurate. When the military unit in which a reporter was embedded came under attack, the reporter could only report what he was experiencing without the benefit of objectivity or the â€Å"big picture† view. While they did provide some provocative footage, these reports did not increase understanding of the situation. Morley Safer stated this eloquently when he said, â€Å"Live coverage†¦only adds heat, it does not add light.†1 Accuracy of reporting Norman Solomon, syndicated columnist on media and politics, suggests that the media has been fundamental in making war possible for the U.S. through fraudulent reporting. He cites reporting of the Gulf of Tonkin in Vietnam and of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq as examples.2 Tim Ryan, Army Lieutenant Colonel, has also expressed concern about the accuracy of reporting and its effect on public perception during the Iraq war. He has suggested that the media intentionally focused on negatives or failures during the war and ignored positives for the sake of a more sensational report. He stated that â€Å"even the Arab media was more willing to show positives,† such as school renovations or the creation of a youth center, than were American journalists.3 During both wars, questions have been raised about the absence of reporting on U.S. interests in the countries in which they were fighting. In Vietnam, manganese, rubber and minerals were of economic interest to the U.S. In Iraq, of course, it was oil. The possibility that the U.S. had less than noble reasons for entering into these wars was rarely addressed in mainstream media. Media influence There are differing opinions on whether the media actually influenced the Vietnam or Iraq wars or whether they simply provided documentation of what was happening. As the above examples show, some commentators believe that the media did affect events by making it easier for the government to wage war through fraudulent reporting, or by negatively affecting the morale of American soldiers and citizens. Contrarily, the organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) claims that the media has been falsely accused of affecting the war.4 According to FAIR, reporters merely reflect the opinions and concerns of the public. As reporter Chris Hedges stated â€Å"when everyone’s waving a flag, the media waves a flag. When middle class families start wondering why their boy is coming home in a rubber bag, then the media starts asking questions too.†1 Regardless of whether they merely presented or actually influenced the Vietnam and Iraq wars, it’s clear that the media encountered similar challenges during both wars. Despite all the changes that occurred in the 40-plus years between the two wars and the fact that confidence in mainstream media waned in that time, the public still looked to the media to help them understand the facts and to represent their interests when they were concerned about the actions being taken. Works Cited 1) â€Å"Which side are you on?† Episode 2, Reporting America at War. PBS, November, 2003. Online transcript www.pbs.org/weta/reportingamericaatwar/about/ep02_transcript.html 2) Solomon, Norman. Adapted from keynote speech at annual awards ceremony of Project Censored at Sonoma State University, CA, October 22, 2005. Online source 3) Ryan, Tim. â€Å"Media and the Iraq War.† Editorial, San Diego Union-Tribune, January 30, 2005. 4) Cohen, Jeff. â€Å"The Myth of the Media’s Role in Vietnam.† May 6, 2001. http://www.fair.org/indexAphp?page=2526 How to cite Media and the Vietnam and Iraq Wars, Essay examples

Aluminium Essay Example For Students

Aluminium Essay The history of Aluminium useAluminium is now one of the most widely used metals, but one of the hardest torefine due to its reactivity with other elements. Even as late as the turn ofthe century, Aluminium was considered very valuable and in turn expensive, evenmore expensive than gold. In some cultures, when a function was held (forexample, a party) by wealthy people, only the most honored guests would be givenAluminium cutlery, the others had to make do with gold or silver cutlery. A Description of the Aluminium ore, including a list of its contentsPure Aluminium oxide is known as alumina (Al2O3). This is found as corundum, acrystalline. Aluminium can also occur as cryolite (Na3AlF6). Traces of othermetal oxides in Aluminium oxide tint it to make it form stones (often precious)for example: chronium gives a red colour to rubies, and cobalt makes the blue insapphires. How Aluminium deposits are formedAluminium (like many other metals) is not found in its pure form, butassociated with other elements in rocks and minerals. An aluminosilicate such asfelspar (KAlSi3O8) is the main constituent of many rocks such as granite, whichis quartz and mica cemented together with felspar. These rocks are graduallyweathered and broken down by the action of carbon-dioxide from the air dissolvedin rainwater forming kaolin. This is further broken down to form othersubstances, ultimately resulting in the formation of Aluminium deposits. Where and how Aluminium is mined?Aluminium is never found in its pure state until it has been refined. Aluminiumis made when refining alumina, which is in turn found from the ore bauxite. Bauxite is often mined in the opencast method. Aluminium deposits are found in many countries, but the countries withsignificant deposits include: Guinea, Jamaica, Surinam, Australia and Russia. How is Aluminium refined?One method is the electrolytic process. This is performed when a low voltagecurrent is passes through a bath containing alumina in the molten form. Thealumina is broken down into Aluminium metal which collects at the bottom of thebath at one electrical pole, the cathode, and the oxygen which reacts at theother pole, the anode, to give carbon-dioxide and some carbon-monoxide. The uses and properties of AluminiumAluminium is now the second most widely used metal, after iron. Aluminium andits alloys, such as duralumin, are used as structural metals for a widevariety of products from aircraft to cooking utensils. Aluminium foil is used towrap food and is also being used to replace copper wire in electrical windings. Aluminium mirrors are used in some large astronomical telescopes. Some Aluminiumores are found in the form of gems and precious stones. Aluminium is also usedin the making of vehicles such as aircraft due to its strength and light weight,but is not used so much in cars due to its cost. Category: Social Issues

20 Most Famous Quotes From the Roman Poet Ovid

20 Most Famous Quotes From the Roman Poet Ovid Ovid, born Publius Ovidius Naso, was a Roman poet best known for his epic work, Metamorphoses, his love poems, and his mysterious banishment from Rome.   Metamorphoses is a narrative poem comprised of 15 books and stands as one of the most important works of classical mythology. It recounts the history of the world from the creation of the universe up until the life of Julius Caesar by telling over 250 myths.   Born to a well-to-do family in 43 BCE, Ovid pursued poetry despite his father’s hopes that he would delve into law and politics. The young man made a wise choice. His first book, Amores (The Loves), a collection of erotic poems, proved an instant success. He followed that with two more impressive collections of erotic poetry,  Heriodes  (The Heroines), Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), and a number of other works.   Sometime around 8 CE, Ovid was exiled from Rome by Emperor Augustus and his books were ordered removed from Roman libraries. Historians are not certain what the writer did to offend the rules, but Ovid, in a poem called Epistulae ex Ponto, claimed  that â€Å"a poem and a mistake† were his undoing. He was sent to the Black Sea city of Tomis in what is now Romania. He died there in 17 CE. Whatever his crimes, his work endures and he ranks among the most important and influential poets of his time. Here are 20 of his most famous quotes on love, life, and more. Keeping an Optimistic Outlook Be patient and tough; someday this pain will be useful to you. /  Dolor hic  tibi  proderit  olim There are a thousand forms of evil; there will be a thousand remedies. On Bravery The gods favor the bold. Courage conquers all things; it even gives strength to the body. On Work Ethic   He who is not prepared today will be less so tomorrow. /  Qui  non  est  hodie  cras  minus  aptus  erit Either do not attempt at all or go through with it. A burden which is done well becomes light. /  Leve fit, quod bene  fertur,  onus   Take rest; a field that has rested gives a bountiful crop. The workmanship surpassed the subject matter. /  Materiam  superabat  opus   Dripping hollows out a rock. /  Gutta  cavat  lapidem   On Love To be loved, be lovable. Every lover is a soldier and has his camp in Cupid. /  Militat  omnis  amans  et  habet  sua  castra Cupido Wine gives courage and makes men more apt for passion. Everyone is a millionaire where promises are concerned. General Words of Wisdom It is art to conceal art. /  Ars est  celare  artem Often the prickly thorn produces tender roses. /  Saepe  creat  molles  aspera  spina  rosas We are slow to believe that which if believed would hurt our feelings. Habits change into character. In our play we reveal what kind of people we are. He who has lived in obscurity has lived well. /  Bene  qui  latuit  bene  vixit

Love Story Essays

Love Story Essays Love Story Essay Love Story Essay John and Mary was so love in each other, Mary never knew that John would change her life so much, since she got in love with him. They were like Romeo and Julie together. For every day that goes, their love gets bigger and bigger, they came so closer to each other. Every day and night, they spent their time together; there was not a single day when they were not together. They could not live without each other. John was so romantic to Mary, he spoils her with flowers and chocolates, he gave her the love that no one else was been able to give.They had been together for more than 3 years. John and Mary graduates at the same time, and then they bought together a very big house, they was happy together. Their love was so strong; there was nothing that could separate them. One day John and Mary invited their both parents on a dinner. That night every one of them was happy, they was having a good night all of them. They was dancing and singing all together. John and Mary’s parents w ere so happy for their children.They were always wishing for them to married one day. Suddenly John stood up, and and held a speech to Mary, he told how much he loved her. Suddenly he stood up and held a speech to Mary; he told how much he loved her. John knelt for Mary, and came up with the most beautiful diamante, and so he asked Mary if Mary wants to marry him. Mary says yes, and then they live a happily life. To – delt eksamen. Lydside- BilledE- Ideudvikling- klipning-Casting .

To what extent have the Millennium Development Goals been a success Essay - 3

To what extent have the Millennium Development Goals been a success - Essay Example e MDGs included the eradication of abject poverty, promotion of the achievement of universal primary education, realization of gender equality and eradication of child mortality (German Watch, 2010:12). Improving maternal health, promoting global partnership for development, eradicating the most notorious disease such as Malaria, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, and the promotion of environmental sustainability were also among the set MDGs (German Watch, 2010:12). Thus, this being the year when the MDGs were meant to have been achieved, it becomes necessary to take stock of their implementation, to establish whether the MDGs have been a success. However, it can be argued that; although much progress has been made towards realizing the MDGs, many targets are still unmet. The fact that the MDGs have been achieved to a larger extent cannot be denied. The current success stories coming from Africa, Asia and some parts of Latin America are, goes to show that the set target to realize the MDGs by 2015 has made a greater impact in these regions (Manning, 2009:33). While not all of the success stories and positive transformation in these regions can be attributed to the MDGs, there is no doubt that the MDGs have played an important role in enhancing eradication of poverty and promoting development in Africa, Asia and Latin America (Melamed & Scott, 2011:2). Poverty reduction, as one of the eight goals set for achievement by 2015, is an area where the MDGs have had notable success. The poverty reduction target has had success both in the partnership between the developed and the LCDs in projects that would eradicate poverty, as well s in the prioritization of the poverty eradication programs by the LCDs (Easterly, 2009:27). In this respect, the MDGs have been termed as the most successful story in the eradication of poverty in the global history of policy interventions. The proportion of the people living in extreme poverty has been halved within the fifteen year period, where

Topic of your choice Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Topic of your choice - Term Paper Example As a means of understanding human resource management to a more effective degree, the following analysis will engage the reader with an understanding of how motivation takes place. Although it is true that employee/stakeholder motivation only represents one aspect of what a human resources department should be performing, it is one of the most essential elements that allows the firm/organization to engage their stakeholders and seek to promote a definitive level of engagement in one particular direction or another. In such a manner, it is the hope of this author that such a level of discussion will be beneficial for the reader to understand the manner through which motivation is utilized within the field of psychology and human resource management. Although Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has oftentimes been considered on a purely personal psychological level, the reality of the situation is that humans are by very nature social beings. By extension, the workplace is necessarily a realm within which individuals need to interact with one another as well as clients as a means of generating profit and income; both for themselves and for the entity in question. In such a way, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is perfectly suited to defining and describing the means by which a given firm/organization can seek to maximize the overall level of motivation that is exhibited within its employees. Naturally, it may seem at bit absurd for the firm/entity in question to be able to speak to the needs of breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, and excretion. However, the fact of the matter is that it is incumbent upon the employer to ensure a safe working environment exists whereby none of the basic physiological needs of the in dividual are disrupted. Continuing to move up the list, the reader can note that more or less in each and every substrata of the pyramid, the employer can seek to provide for at least some of these needs. Naturally,

Performance Measurement and Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Performance Measurement and Management - Essay Example Then for the last fifteen to twenty years the demands of call centers have tremendously increased. A call center is an operation where employees or agents use computers and specially designed phones to receive calls, do outbound calls on some occasions. These calls then are operated by automatic call distribution (inbound) or predictive dialing system (outbound). The computers that the agents used are specially develop to verify customer data, gather information, and store gathered data (Taylor and Bain 1999). The call center industry provides various types of services and products. There are call centers that handle medical accounts like prescription handling and order taking; some provide service for bank companies like credit and loans, some provide service for reservations in a hotel or air flight, some centers do provide technical support like those who handle internet connectivity and computer troubleshooting. The call center management uses several tools; one of these tools is the automatic call distribution system. This system provides the company various information essential to keep the business running. The system automatically place callers on queue while the agents are busy assisting other customers. The ACD system also presents wide array of statistics necessary for the operation of a call center. The ACD system provides statistics like how many possible calls are to come in for a specific time (this statistic helps the managers control the number of agents that needs to be on the phone on a particular time), the system also presents the number of agents on call and the number of agents waiting for calls to come in. The system provides the ideal length of call time per customer versus the length of waiting or avail time of agents. The system at the end of the shift will display the number of calls the entire account has answered, dropped,

Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites to Strengthen Structures

Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites to Strengthen Structures Aim The project aim is to identify the use of FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymers) composites in strengthening of structures. The general process and methodology considered in achieving this objective is by externally bonding Fibre reinforced plastics to the metal structure/plate and thus testing the specimen under 3 point bend as well as 4 point bend tests. The preliminary report will focus on the project introduction, literature review related to the project topic, project plan and further to be carried out. Analysis of Tasks As mentioned the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s main focus is strengthening of structures. So the question is why is there a need for strengthening of structures? The reason behind the strengthening of structures is that the structure will be able to support greater magnitude of loads than the values for which the structures are originally designed. Strengthening may become necessary in course of time in order to overcome the damage caused due to environmental factors such as corrosion as well as fatigue cracking. The method of bonding reinforcement represents an attractive solution to the problem as it can be achieved with relatively small impact on the structure. The next stage of the preliminary thesis will focus on the literature review. The literature review section is divided in to two sections firstly it will focus on the topics related to the Composite Materials, which will involve the following topics. Definition of Composite Material Classification of Composite Materials Types of Matrix Types of Reinforcement Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Materials Manufacturing of Composite Materials The next section of the literature review will focus on the topics related to strengthening of structures. For this section following topics will be considered. Different Methods for Structure Strengthening Different Methods for Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. The preliminary thesis will also look at the comparison between the structural strengthening using FRP Composites and Steel plates. This will help in giving a suitable reason as to why Composites are preferred over Steel plates for structural strengthening. Composites are considered as one of the most promising material for reducing the weight as well as increasing the strength of the material. The theory of hybrid material has been successfully exploited when studying sandwich panel technology. Now the concept of integrated multi materials is extended to a wider variety of structures, components and applications. Fibre reinforced plastics (FRPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s) have been successfully used for the post strengthening of structures over a number of years. The design and manufacturing of composites has led to its application in variety of industries such as automotive, aerospace, sporting goods, construction and in the marine as well as oil and gas industries. Moreover the method of bonded reinforcements also comes into account when there have been cases where errors in design or construction of a structure have questioned safety aspect. This can be achieved by externally bonding reinforcements at a cost of very small impact to the structures. Project Time-Line (Gantt chart) Literature Review Composite Materials Composite materials also known as composites are defined as a combination of two or more materials to give a unique combination of properties [1]. This definition is very general and thus includes metals, alloys, plastic co-polymers, minerals and wood. A material is only classified as a composite if the material satisfies the following conditions [2]: The material must be manufactured It should consist of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases with an interface separating them. The characteristics of the composites are not depicted by any of the components in the isolation. Fibre reinforced composite materials differ slightly from the general definition because in this FRP the constituent materials are different at the molecular level and at mechanically separable. However the final material properties of the composite are better in comparison to that of the constituents. The figure 1 below gives a basic idea of how the structure of composite material looks like. The composites can be classified as fibre reinforced, particle reinforced, dispersion strengthened and laminates composites. Figure Structure of Composite Material [http://resources.edb.gov.hk/~s1sci/R_S1Science/sp/en/syllabus/unit14/new/images/s.gif] The composite material consists of two main elements the matrix and reinforcements (fibre). The classification of Composite materials is as shown in figure 2. Composite Materials Matrix Reinforcements Polymer Metal Ceramic Particle Reinforcement Fibre Reinforcement Structural Reinforcement Laminates Long Fibre Short Fibre Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Bidirectional Unidirectional Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Figure Classification of Composite Material Types of Matrix There are three main types of matrix considered when studying composites materials namely Polymer, Metal and Ceramic. Polymer Matrix composites are the most common types of matrix composites. They are also known as FRP (Fibre reinforced polymers). The resin used in here is polymer based combined with a variety of fibres such as Glass, Carbon and Aramid as reinforcements. Metal Matrix Composites are mainly used in the automotive industry. The materials use a metal for example Aluminium as the matrix which is then reinforced with fibres such as silicon carbide. Ceramic Matrix Composites are used in very high temperature environments. This type of materials uses Ceramic as the matrix and the matrix is then reinforced with short fibres such as Silicon Carbide and Boron Nitride. A matrix plays an important role in a Composite structure. There are several functions of Matrix most of which are very important to the satisfactory performance of the structure. The following points outline the important functions of the matrix. The matrix binds the fibre together and thus transfers the load to the fibres. The matrix provides the rigidity and shape to the structure. The matrix isolates the fibres such that each individual fibre can perform separately, due to this crack propagation process slows down. The surface finish quality of the structure is provided by the matrix. The matrix acts as a protection to the reinforced fibres from chemical attack and mechanical wear and tear. The type of material selected as matrix affects the ductility and failure mode of the structure together with the fibreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s compatibility. Types of Reinforcements The other constituent in the composite material is called the Reinforcement. This gives the composite the necessary strength and stiffness. The structure of the reinforcement is thin rod like. The most commonly used reinforcements are Glass, Carbon, Aramid, and Boron fibres. The diameters of these fibres range from 5 µm to 20  µm. [1] Due to the thin diameter of the fibre, the fibres are flexible and can be formed easily into any shapes. Fibres can come into many forms such as continuous fibre, discontinuous fibre, short fibres, long fibres, organic fibres and inorganic fibres. Fibre brings out the high performance of the material; this is due to three important characteristics of the fibres. The orientation of the fibres also has an impact on the performance of the composite. The fibres can be unidirectional, cross ply or random in its arrangement. Small diameter in comparison to the grain size. As a result of this higher fraction of theoretical strength can be attained. High aspect ratio (length/diameter); this allows a larger amount of load to be transferred. High degree of flexibility. The main functions of fibres are as listed below [1]; To carry the load. Hence fibres are made from materials with high tensile strength and high elastic modulus. Provides strength, stiffness, thermal stability and other structural properties in the composites. Provide electrical conductivity or insulation, depending on the type of fibre used. Advantages of Composites Composites are designed to perform in applications which require lighter weight and higher performance. The advantages of using composites are listed below. High resistance to Corrosion; due to this the application in marine, infrastructure and chemical is very good. High specific stiffness and high specific strength; this gives a weight reduction so is used for the application in aerospace, automotive and manufacturing of sporting goods. The impact resistance is high compared to metal. Higher fatigue strength. Unidirectional carbon/epoxy composites have good fatigue strength of almost 90% of its static strength. Composite materials offer increased amount of design of flexibility. For example the coefficient of thermal expansion of composite can be made zero if suitable constituents and lay up sequence is selected. As the coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low compared to metals, the composite structure thus provides a good dimensional stability. Also due to the design flexibility, composite materials can be formed into any shapes. Process cycle times and costs are also reduced because of the use of composites in production of net shape and near net shape parts. Composite materials dampen the vibrations an order of magnitude better than metals. Glass reinforced and aramid reinforced composite meet the FAA and JAR requirements for low smoke and toxicity and thus are used in interior panels of aircrafts, stow bins and galley walls. Disadvantages of Composites There will always be limitations to the benefits of the composites. The disadvantages are as listed below. Weaker in transverse direction and low in toughness. Material cost is high compared to that of steel and aluminium. The lack of high volume production limits the wide spread use of composite materials. However this is changing as modern production methods such as Pultrusion, Resin transfer Moulding and other methods have been automated to increase the rate of production. The knowledge through books and database is limited when comes to designing parts with composite. Composites absorb moisture, which affects the properties and dimensional stability of the composite. Difficult to join together with other material due to its anisotropic properties and high sensitivity to damage. For example when drilling holes for mechanical fastening. Brittle like behaviour. Difficult to repair as most composites use thermo set matrices that can not be re shaped. On the contrary thermoplastics can be repaired how ever they are rare [4]. Solvent resistance, chemical resistance and environmental stress cracking of composite depend on the properties of polymers. Some polymers have low resistance to the solvents and environmental stress cracking[1]. Manufacturing of Composite Materials Before looking into manufacturing of composite materials; it is important to look at manufacturing of fibre performs briefly. Fibre performs is how fibre are manufactured before being bonded to the matrix to form a composite material. Fibre performs are often manufactured in sheets or filaments in case of spraying applications. The fibre manufacturing process is carried out by adopting the technique used in textile industry. The techniques used are weaving, knitting, braiding and stitching [5]. The manufacturing process of composite material in general can be divided into two main processes. Prepreg Moulding Wet Moulding PrepReg Moulding The process of prepreg moulding can be further categorized as: Bladder Moulding Compression Moulding Autoclave/Vacuum bag Moulding Mandrel Wrapping [6]Bladder Moulding: In this process the sheets of prepreg material are laid up and placed in female style mould along with a balloon like bladder. The mould is then closed and placed in the heated press. Eventually, the bladder is pressurized which then forces the layers of material against mould walls. The part is then cured and removed from the hot mould. The process is ideally suited for complex hollow shapes. Also the process has great cost to performance balance. Typical example of equipment using bladder moulding technique is the manufacturing of tennis racquet. Average cure cycle range is 15-60 minutes. Compression Moulding: A process where a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“performà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“chargeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of single moulding compound (SMC) or bulk moulding compound (BMC) or sometimes prepreg fabric is placed in the mould cavity. Once the mould is closed, the material is compacted and cured inside by heat and pressure. The process also offers excellent detailing for geometric shapes. The average cure cycle range is 2-20 minutes. The tooling is process is often more expensive. Auto Clave/Vacuum Bag Moulding: The figure below gives an idea of vacuum bagging for prepreg lay-up process. Figure Vacuum bagging for prepreg lay up process [http://www.highcomp.no/design/bilder/vacum/vacum.gif] Once all the prepregs are laid out in the desired sequence, vacuum bagging preparations are set up as per the figure 3 for curing of the part. First step is application of release film on the top of all the prepreg. The release film is a perforated film that allows captured air, excess resin and volatiles to escape. Secondly is the application of bleeder on top of release film; it is a porous fabric that absorbs moisture and excess resin coming from stack of prepregs/laminates. Thirdly is the application of non porous and non-perforated film on top of bleeder. After this a breather layer is applied; this is a porous fabric which creates even pressure around the part and at the same time allowing air and volatiles to escape. Then final layer is of vacuum bag. The vacuum bag is an expendable polyamide film. The film is sealed on all sides of laminate using a seal tape. A nozzle is inserted into the vacuum bag and is then connected to hose vacuum pump for creating vacuum. Mandrel Wrapping: In these process sheets of prepreg material is wrapped around steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are cured by hanging in the oven. Once the curing process is completed, the cello and mandrel are removed which results in a hollow carbon tube. Advantages of prepreg lay up process are that it is simple process when manufacturing complex parts. Also strong and stiff parts can be fabricated using this process. Also allows production of high fibre volume fraction. Prepregs usually have more than 60% fibre volume fraction. Limitations of the process being that labour is intensive as a result of which the process is not suitable for high volume production applications. Also parts manufactured by this process are very expensive. Wet Moulding Wet moulding process can be divided into following processes. Wet layup Spray Up process Filament winding Pultrusion Resin transfer Moulding (RTM) Resin transfer moulding under vacuum (VARTM) Wet Lay-up: in this process a fabric is placed in open mould which is then hand saturated with wet resin. The curing occurs normally at room temperature. However it can be cured at higher temperatures based on the heat resistance of the mould. The advantage of this process is that the material cost and tooling cost is low. Because of this the process is considered as low tech process. Spray-up process: The processing steps are similar to that of the wet lay-up process except for the method of creating the laminates. The basic steps are as follows [1]. The mould is waxed and polished for easy de-moulding Gel coat is applied to the mould surface and allowed to harden before building any other layer. The barrier coat is applied to avoid fibre print through the gel coat surface. Oven curing of barrier coat. Mixing of resin with fillers and the mixture is then pumped to a holding tank. Spraying of resin, catalyst and chopped fibres on the mould surface. This is done with the aid of hand held spray gun. The spraying is carried out in typical pattern to create uniform thickness of the laminate. A roller is then used in order to make the fibre and resin material compact as well as create a smooth and even surface. The laminate is then cured in the oven. The part is then de-moulded and sent for finishing work. The process of spray lay-up is very economical, maximizes the use of low cost tooling as well as low cost material systems however it is not suitable for making parts that have high structure requirements, fibre volume fraction can be difficult to control as well as the thickness. The surface finish on both the sides is not same. Also dimensional tolerance is poor. Filament Winding: This is a process in which resin-impregnated fibres are pulled and wound over a rotating mandrel at desired angle. The fibre pulled is from a wet bath of resin. Curing occurs at room temperature or higher temperature. The performance is limited and it is difficult to obtain uniform fibre distribution and resin content through out the thickness of the laminate. The process is very suitable for tubular parts such as pressure vessels. Figure Filament Winding Process [http://www.thaicomposites.com/images/filament-winding.gif] The advantages of this process being its ability to utilize low cost raw material and low cost tooling systems. It can be automated for the production of high volume composite parts. The figure 4 gives an indication of the filament winding process. Pultrusion: As the name suggests, it is a process which will have pulling and extrusion (cutting). In this process resin impregnated fibres are pulled through to make a part. Saturated material is pulled through a heated closed die and cured while continuously moving through the die. The figure 5 gives an indication of the process. Figure Pultrusion process [http://www.ultrafiberglass.com/pultrusion%20process.jpg] The advantage of pultrusion process is that it is a continuous process and can be completely automated to get the finished product. The process is suitable for making high volume composite parts. Utilizes low cost fibre and resin systems thus provide a low production cost of products. The limitations being that the thin wall parts, tapered and complex parts cannot be produced. Resin Transfer Moulding A resin and catalyst are placed in two separate tanks A and B. A release agent such as gel coat is then applied to mould for good surface finish. The preform is placed inside the mould and the mould is then clamped. The mould is then heated to a specified temperature. Mixed Resin is then injected at selected temperature and pressure. Vacuum is also created to remove air bubbles as well as assist in resin flow. The injection continues until the mould is completely filled. The vacuum is turned off. The pressure inside the mould is increased to ensure that remaining porosity is collapsed. After curing for certain period of time depending on resin, the composite part is removed from mould. In this process, fabrics are placed in to a mould and then wet resin is injected. Resin is pressurized and is then forced into the cavity which is under vacuum. In the VARTM process resin is completely pulled in to cavity under vacuum. This moulding process allows precise tolerance and detailed shaping, however this may result in at times failure to fully saturate fabric leading to weak shape in the final product. The figure and steps following the figure describe the process. Figure Resin Transfer Moulding [http://www.ctihuatai.com/index.files/rtmstatic.gif] Strengthening of Structures The next stage of literature review will now focus on the strengthening of structures. As explained earlier the need for strengthening of structures; it is important to look at first the different methods adopted in order to strengthen the structure. The structure strengthening methods include the following. Span Shortening Pre-stressed Concrete Section Enlargement Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. Span Shortening This is method in which length of a beam is shortening. This is achieved by installing additional supports underneath the existing members. Materials used in this process are mainly structural steel members and cast in place reinforced concrete members. The members are connected mechanically using bolts and adhesive anchors. Span shortening reduces the deflection in the beam. This can be proved by means of simple calculation. P1ÃŽÂ ´1 Let us consider a beam of length à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“L (m)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? under a load P kN undergoing a 3 point bend test. l1 Where ÃŽÂ ´ is the deflection in the beam. Let us consider a pair of equations in order to calculate deflection in the beam. ; If ratio of the deflection is taken in to account, and doubling the span length meaning l2 = 2l1. Then, Then ÃŽÂ ´2 = 8 x ÃŽÂ ´1; this means that central deflection will become 8 times. So to conclude the method shorter the span, less deflection will occur at the centre. Pre stressed Concrete Pre stressed concrete is a method used for overcoming concreteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s natural weakness in tension. Pre-stressing tendons generally made of high tensile steel rods are used to provide clamping load that generates compressive stresses which balances out the tensile stress that would be experienced by the concrete beams due to bending [7]. The process of pre stressing can be achieved in three ways: pre tensioned concrete, bonded or un-bonded post-tensioned concrete. However the method is mainly used for civil engineering and construction projects. The figure below gives an indication of the method. Figure Pre Stressing Method [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/BRIDGE/pt/images/pt102.gif] Section Enlargement In simple terms, it is when the second moment of area is changed. The method involves placing an additional bonded reinforcement concrete to an existing structure member in the form of an overlay or a jacket. The main advantage of this technique is that it increases the load bearing capacity or stiffness. The technique reduces bending and shear forces on overstressed beams. Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites Fibre reinforced polymers are applied to strengthen structure. There method can be primarily divided in to two categories. One is the strengthening of structure at manufacturing phase and other is after manufacturing. The technique used to strengthen structure at manufacturing phase is known as Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement (NSMR) and the strengthening of structure can be achieved once the manufacturing is completed is by external plate bonding method. Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement Near surface mounted reinforcement is one of the latest and most promising techniques to be considered when strengthening concrete structures. Using FRP instead of steel in this technique has many advantages such as its better resistance to corrosion, quick and easy installation due to light weight. When compared with external bonding method, the NSMR has many advantages such as amount of site installation work is reduced for example removal of plaster, etc. second advantage being that NSMR is less prone to de-bonding from concrete substrate. NSMR bars can be easily anchored into adjacent members to prevent failures due to de-bonding. This feature is very important when considering flexural strengthening. NSMR bars can be easily pre-stressed. As the bars are covered by cover of concrete, so they are less exposed to accidental impact or mechanical damage such as fire or wear and tear. As the NSMR technique is new, the knowledge on this technique is limited than that of externally bonded reinforcement. In recent studies CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) NSM reinforcements have been widely used to strengthen structures. The following general steps must be performed during the strengthening. Sawing up slots in concrete cover, depth of the structure is dependent on the product used. After sawing of slots, careful cleaning is required. If using an epoxy system, the slots where the bars are to be installed must be dry before bonding. If cement system is used then the surface must be wet. Adhesive is applied in the slot when using epoxy system or cement mortar is used when using cement system. The figure below gives an indication of the technique. Figure Near Surface mounted Reinforcement technique [http://msw.mcmaster.ca/~koranyy/Photos/NSM-vertical.jpg] In the above figure it can be seen that a carbon fibre rope is placed in the centre of the brick wall and an epoxy paste is applied. The figure on the left is for vertical reinforcement and the figure on the right is for horizontal reinforcement. The second part of the images is the finished version of structure once the method is completed. The application of this technique is mainly on flat surfaces and is suitable for strengthening in bending. The process is also helpful in increasing the shear capacity of the beams. The next method considered for structure strengthening using FRP composites is external plate bonding. However it is first important to compare the advantage of using composites over steel plates. These are explained in the next segment of the report. External Plate Bonding The general principle of external plate bonding method is that in this method transfer of stresses takes place from the structural element to the additional plates that are adhered or bolted. Whilst strengthening structure many problems are faced such as. Load Increases: Structure with externally bonded plates has capacity to accept higher live loads for example in factories where heavy machines are installed. External plate bonding also reduces deformation and is also helpful where vibrations are an issue. Damage to Structural Parts: it can be utilized in cases where the building has been damaged due to fire or vehicle collision. Improvement in suitability: This can be achieved by limiting deflection and reducing crack widths and stresses. Modification of Structural System: Plate bonding provides a cost effective solution where structure has been weakened by removal of walls and columns or opening cuts. Errors in planning or construction: Plate bonding provides solution to earlier design errors and calculation errors. In general terms external plate bonding can reduce deflection thus limit cracking as well as increase the load bearing capacity and also increase the flexural strength and finally improve resistance to shear in certain cases. As the method of plate bonding can be achieved by both using Composites as well as steel plates so it is important to understand the advantage of composite over steel plates. This analysis will be carried on three grounds namely technical, practical/application and Economic. The table on the next page summarizes the technical differences between the composite and steel plates Composite Steel Plates High tensile strength of Carbon fibre (5650N/mm2) Tensile strength of steel is (235 N/mm2) No corrosion Highly prone to corrosion Strength to weight ratio is higher Strength to weight ratio is lower Table Technical differences between Composite and Steel Plates When performing practical application on site; installation of steel plates requires an extensive amount of work such as drilling holes in plates, wrapping plates and bolting the plates. Where as the composite plates would require very limited work such as bonding to the metal plate using an epoxy. Table 2 summarizes the economic differences Potential Cost Composite Steel Plates High Low Volume Typically 10-50% of steel Relatively high Adhesive smaller area of plates required so less adhesive Area of plates is high so higher amount of adhesive Preparation Off site On site Limited Limited Extensive Extensive Labour Requirement Low High Equipment Low High Temporary support None Yes Time Fast Slow Table Economic Differences between Composite and steel plates The application of the plates externally can be varying such as if the surface is horizontal than FRP is applied horizontally or in the U shape. If the structure is a circular column then FRP is applied by wrapping around it. Wrapping sheets have fabrics in same direction or bi-directional. One thing to be considered when using FRP is that it needs to be protected from fire. An FRP plate applied to the bottom of structure (tension face) increases the strength of beam and reduces deflection. Where as application of FRP strips attached in U shape around the sides and bottom of beam increases shear resistance. Wrapping of sheets around column results in higher strength and restrains lateral expansion of columns. The figures below give an example of application of FRP composite to structure. (A) (B) (C) Figure Strengthening using FRP Composites [http://sites.google.com/site/frpstrengthening/frpdrawing2-custom-size-398-103.jpg] [http://www.structural.net/Article_Images/Figure%204.JPG] Figure A and B look at plate bonding and figure C gives an indication of wrapping columns. Discussion The project is currently in its research phase. The topics covered in the literature review section of the report are vital as it is important to gain knowledge about the subject and understand its applications in the real engineering world. The future work in the project will involve an additional literature review for structural strengthening and the next stage will be to set up a meeting with the supervisor to discuss the experiment as to what needs to be performed. Once this is completed the project plan will be reviewed to meet the final submission date of the thesis as mentioned earlier in the deliverables section. To conclude the test to be carried out for this purpose will be a 3 point bend test and 4 point bend test and thus the results will be concluded. Bibliography Dag Linghoff (2009), Thin Walled Structures, Carbon-fibre Composites for strengthening steel structures, volume 47 pages 1048-1058. U.Meier (1995), Construction and Building Materials, Strengthening of structures using carbon fibre epoxy composites, volume 9 issue 6 pages 341-351. A.R.Rahai and M.M.Alinia (2008), Construction and Building Materials, Performance Evaluation and Strengthening of concrete structures with composite bracing members, volume 22 issue 10 pages 2100-2110 J.G.Broughton (1997), International Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites to Strengthen Structures Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites to Strengthen Structures Aim The project aim is to identify the use of FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymers) composites in strengthening of structures. The general process and methodology considered in achieving this objective is by externally bonding Fibre reinforced plastics to the metal structure/plate and thus testing the specimen under 3 point bend as well as 4 point bend tests. The preliminary report will focus on the project introduction, literature review related to the project topic, project plan and further to be carried out. Analysis of Tasks As mentioned the projectà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s main focus is strengthening of structures. So the question is why is there a need for strengthening of structures? The reason behind the strengthening of structures is that the structure will be able to support greater magnitude of loads than the values for which the structures are originally designed. Strengthening may become necessary in course of time in order to overcome the damage caused due to environmental factors such as corrosion as well as fatigue cracking. The method of bonding reinforcement represents an attractive solution to the problem as it can be achieved with relatively small impact on the structure. The next stage of the preliminary thesis will focus on the literature review. The literature review section is divided in to two sections firstly it will focus on the topics related to the Composite Materials, which will involve the following topics. Definition of Composite Material Classification of Composite Materials Types of Matrix Types of Reinforcement Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Materials Manufacturing of Composite Materials The next section of the literature review will focus on the topics related to strengthening of structures. For this section following topics will be considered. Different Methods for Structure Strengthening Different Methods for Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. The preliminary thesis will also look at the comparison between the structural strengthening using FRP Composites and Steel plates. This will help in giving a suitable reason as to why Composites are preferred over Steel plates for structural strengthening. Composites are considered as one of the most promising material for reducing the weight as well as increasing the strength of the material. The theory of hybrid material has been successfully exploited when studying sandwich panel technology. Now the concept of integrated multi materials is extended to a wider variety of structures, components and applications. Fibre reinforced plastics (FRPà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s) have been successfully used for the post strengthening of structures over a number of years. The design and manufacturing of composites has led to its application in variety of industries such as automotive, aerospace, sporting goods, construction and in the marine as well as oil and gas industries. Moreover the method of bonded reinforcements also comes into account when there have been cases where errors in design or construction of a structure have questioned safety aspect. This can be achieved by externally bonding reinforcements at a cost of very small impact to the structures. Project Time-Line (Gantt chart) Literature Review Composite Materials Composite materials also known as composites are defined as a combination of two or more materials to give a unique combination of properties [1]. This definition is very general and thus includes metals, alloys, plastic co-polymers, minerals and wood. A material is only classified as a composite if the material satisfies the following conditions [2]: The material must be manufactured It should consist of two or more physically and/or chemically distinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases with an interface separating them. The characteristics of the composites are not depicted by any of the components in the isolation. Fibre reinforced composite materials differ slightly from the general definition because in this FRP the constituent materials are different at the molecular level and at mechanically separable. However the final material properties of the composite are better in comparison to that of the constituents. The figure 1 below gives a basic idea of how the structure of composite material looks like. The composites can be classified as fibre reinforced, particle reinforced, dispersion strengthened and laminates composites. Figure Structure of Composite Material [http://resources.edb.gov.hk/~s1sci/R_S1Science/sp/en/syllabus/unit14/new/images/s.gif] The composite material consists of two main elements the matrix and reinforcements (fibre). The classification of Composite materials is as shown in figure 2. Composite Materials Matrix Reinforcements Polymer Metal Ceramic Particle Reinforcement Fibre Reinforcement Structural Reinforcement Laminates Long Fibre Short Fibre Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Bidirectional Unidirectional Preferred Orientation Random Orientation Figure Classification of Composite Material Types of Matrix There are three main types of matrix considered when studying composites materials namely Polymer, Metal and Ceramic. Polymer Matrix composites are the most common types of matrix composites. They are also known as FRP (Fibre reinforced polymers). The resin used in here is polymer based combined with a variety of fibres such as Glass, Carbon and Aramid as reinforcements. Metal Matrix Composites are mainly used in the automotive industry. The materials use a metal for example Aluminium as the matrix which is then reinforced with fibres such as silicon carbide. Ceramic Matrix Composites are used in very high temperature environments. This type of materials uses Ceramic as the matrix and the matrix is then reinforced with short fibres such as Silicon Carbide and Boron Nitride. A matrix plays an important role in a Composite structure. There are several functions of Matrix most of which are very important to the satisfactory performance of the structure. The following points outline the important functions of the matrix. The matrix binds the fibre together and thus transfers the load to the fibres. The matrix provides the rigidity and shape to the structure. The matrix isolates the fibres such that each individual fibre can perform separately, due to this crack propagation process slows down. The surface finish quality of the structure is provided by the matrix. The matrix acts as a protection to the reinforced fibres from chemical attack and mechanical wear and tear. The type of material selected as matrix affects the ductility and failure mode of the structure together with the fibreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s compatibility. Types of Reinforcements The other constituent in the composite material is called the Reinforcement. This gives the composite the necessary strength and stiffness. The structure of the reinforcement is thin rod like. The most commonly used reinforcements are Glass, Carbon, Aramid, and Boron fibres. The diameters of these fibres range from 5 µm to 20  µm. [1] Due to the thin diameter of the fibre, the fibres are flexible and can be formed easily into any shapes. Fibres can come into many forms such as continuous fibre, discontinuous fibre, short fibres, long fibres, organic fibres and inorganic fibres. Fibre brings out the high performance of the material; this is due to three important characteristics of the fibres. The orientation of the fibres also has an impact on the performance of the composite. The fibres can be unidirectional, cross ply or random in its arrangement. Small diameter in comparison to the grain size. As a result of this higher fraction of theoretical strength can be attained. High aspect ratio (length/diameter); this allows a larger amount of load to be transferred. High degree of flexibility. The main functions of fibres are as listed below [1]; To carry the load. Hence fibres are made from materials with high tensile strength and high elastic modulus. Provides strength, stiffness, thermal stability and other structural properties in the composites. Provide electrical conductivity or insulation, depending on the type of fibre used. Advantages of Composites Composites are designed to perform in applications which require lighter weight and higher performance. The advantages of using composites are listed below. High resistance to Corrosion; due to this the application in marine, infrastructure and chemical is very good. High specific stiffness and high specific strength; this gives a weight reduction so is used for the application in aerospace, automotive and manufacturing of sporting goods. The impact resistance is high compared to metal. Higher fatigue strength. Unidirectional carbon/epoxy composites have good fatigue strength of almost 90% of its static strength. Composite materials offer increased amount of design of flexibility. For example the coefficient of thermal expansion of composite can be made zero if suitable constituents and lay up sequence is selected. As the coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively low compared to metals, the composite structure thus provides a good dimensional stability. Also due to the design flexibility, composite materials can be formed into any shapes. Process cycle times and costs are also reduced because of the use of composites in production of net shape and near net shape parts. Composite materials dampen the vibrations an order of magnitude better than metals. Glass reinforced and aramid reinforced composite meet the FAA and JAR requirements for low smoke and toxicity and thus are used in interior panels of aircrafts, stow bins and galley walls. Disadvantages of Composites There will always be limitations to the benefits of the composites. The disadvantages are as listed below. Weaker in transverse direction and low in toughness. Material cost is high compared to that of steel and aluminium. The lack of high volume production limits the wide spread use of composite materials. However this is changing as modern production methods such as Pultrusion, Resin transfer Moulding and other methods have been automated to increase the rate of production. The knowledge through books and database is limited when comes to designing parts with composite. Composites absorb moisture, which affects the properties and dimensional stability of the composite. Difficult to join together with other material due to its anisotropic properties and high sensitivity to damage. For example when drilling holes for mechanical fastening. Brittle like behaviour. Difficult to repair as most composites use thermo set matrices that can not be re shaped. On the contrary thermoplastics can be repaired how ever they are rare [4]. Solvent resistance, chemical resistance and environmental stress cracking of composite depend on the properties of polymers. Some polymers have low resistance to the solvents and environmental stress cracking[1]. Manufacturing of Composite Materials Before looking into manufacturing of composite materials; it is important to look at manufacturing of fibre performs briefly. Fibre performs is how fibre are manufactured before being bonded to the matrix to form a composite material. Fibre performs are often manufactured in sheets or filaments in case of spraying applications. The fibre manufacturing process is carried out by adopting the technique used in textile industry. The techniques used are weaving, knitting, braiding and stitching [5]. The manufacturing process of composite material in general can be divided into two main processes. Prepreg Moulding Wet Moulding PrepReg Moulding The process of prepreg moulding can be further categorized as: Bladder Moulding Compression Moulding Autoclave/Vacuum bag Moulding Mandrel Wrapping [6]Bladder Moulding: In this process the sheets of prepreg material are laid up and placed in female style mould along with a balloon like bladder. The mould is then closed and placed in the heated press. Eventually, the bladder is pressurized which then forces the layers of material against mould walls. The part is then cured and removed from the hot mould. The process is ideally suited for complex hollow shapes. Also the process has great cost to performance balance. Typical example of equipment using bladder moulding technique is the manufacturing of tennis racquet. Average cure cycle range is 15-60 minutes. Compression Moulding: A process where a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“performà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“chargeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? of single moulding compound (SMC) or bulk moulding compound (BMC) or sometimes prepreg fabric is placed in the mould cavity. Once the mould is closed, the material is compacted and cured inside by heat and pressure. The process also offers excellent detailing for geometric shapes. The average cure cycle range is 2-20 minutes. The tooling is process is often more expensive. Auto Clave/Vacuum Bag Moulding: The figure below gives an idea of vacuum bagging for prepreg lay-up process. Figure Vacuum bagging for prepreg lay up process [http://www.highcomp.no/design/bilder/vacum/vacum.gif] Once all the prepregs are laid out in the desired sequence, vacuum bagging preparations are set up as per the figure 3 for curing of the part. First step is application of release film on the top of all the prepreg. The release film is a perforated film that allows captured air, excess resin and volatiles to escape. Secondly is the application of bleeder on top of release film; it is a porous fabric that absorbs moisture and excess resin coming from stack of prepregs/laminates. Thirdly is the application of non porous and non-perforated film on top of bleeder. After this a breather layer is applied; this is a porous fabric which creates even pressure around the part and at the same time allowing air and volatiles to escape. Then final layer is of vacuum bag. The vacuum bag is an expendable polyamide film. The film is sealed on all sides of laminate using a seal tape. A nozzle is inserted into the vacuum bag and is then connected to hose vacuum pump for creating vacuum. Mandrel Wrapping: In these process sheets of prepreg material is wrapped around steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are cured by hanging in the oven. Once the curing process is completed, the cello and mandrel are removed which results in a hollow carbon tube. Advantages of prepreg lay up process are that it is simple process when manufacturing complex parts. Also strong and stiff parts can be fabricated using this process. Also allows production of high fibre volume fraction. Prepregs usually have more than 60% fibre volume fraction. Limitations of the process being that labour is intensive as a result of which the process is not suitable for high volume production applications. Also parts manufactured by this process are very expensive. Wet Moulding Wet moulding process can be divided into following processes. Wet layup Spray Up process Filament winding Pultrusion Resin transfer Moulding (RTM) Resin transfer moulding under vacuum (VARTM) Wet Lay-up: in this process a fabric is placed in open mould which is then hand saturated with wet resin. The curing occurs normally at room temperature. However it can be cured at higher temperatures based on the heat resistance of the mould. The advantage of this process is that the material cost and tooling cost is low. Because of this the process is considered as low tech process. Spray-up process: The processing steps are similar to that of the wet lay-up process except for the method of creating the laminates. The basic steps are as follows [1]. The mould is waxed and polished for easy de-moulding Gel coat is applied to the mould surface and allowed to harden before building any other layer. The barrier coat is applied to avoid fibre print through the gel coat surface. Oven curing of barrier coat. Mixing of resin with fillers and the mixture is then pumped to a holding tank. Spraying of resin, catalyst and chopped fibres on the mould surface. This is done with the aid of hand held spray gun. The spraying is carried out in typical pattern to create uniform thickness of the laminate. A roller is then used in order to make the fibre and resin material compact as well as create a smooth and even surface. The laminate is then cured in the oven. The part is then de-moulded and sent for finishing work. The process of spray lay-up is very economical, maximizes the use of low cost tooling as well as low cost material systems however it is not suitable for making parts that have high structure requirements, fibre volume fraction can be difficult to control as well as the thickness. The surface finish on both the sides is not same. Also dimensional tolerance is poor. Filament Winding: This is a process in which resin-impregnated fibres are pulled and wound over a rotating mandrel at desired angle. The fibre pulled is from a wet bath of resin. Curing occurs at room temperature or higher temperature. The performance is limited and it is difficult to obtain uniform fibre distribution and resin content through out the thickness of the laminate. The process is very suitable for tubular parts such as pressure vessels. Figure Filament Winding Process [http://www.thaicomposites.com/images/filament-winding.gif] The advantages of this process being its ability to utilize low cost raw material and low cost tooling systems. It can be automated for the production of high volume composite parts. The figure 4 gives an indication of the filament winding process. Pultrusion: As the name suggests, it is a process which will have pulling and extrusion (cutting). In this process resin impregnated fibres are pulled through to make a part. Saturated material is pulled through a heated closed die and cured while continuously moving through the die. The figure 5 gives an indication of the process. Figure Pultrusion process [http://www.ultrafiberglass.com/pultrusion%20process.jpg] The advantage of pultrusion process is that it is a continuous process and can be completely automated to get the finished product. The process is suitable for making high volume composite parts. Utilizes low cost fibre and resin systems thus provide a low production cost of products. The limitations being that the thin wall parts, tapered and complex parts cannot be produced. Resin Transfer Moulding A resin and catalyst are placed in two separate tanks A and B. A release agent such as gel coat is then applied to mould for good surface finish. The preform is placed inside the mould and the mould is then clamped. The mould is then heated to a specified temperature. Mixed Resin is then injected at selected temperature and pressure. Vacuum is also created to remove air bubbles as well as assist in resin flow. The injection continues until the mould is completely filled. The vacuum is turned off. The pressure inside the mould is increased to ensure that remaining porosity is collapsed. After curing for certain period of time depending on resin, the composite part is removed from mould. In this process, fabrics are placed in to a mould and then wet resin is injected. Resin is pressurized and is then forced into the cavity which is under vacuum. In the VARTM process resin is completely pulled in to cavity under vacuum. This moulding process allows precise tolerance and detailed shaping, however this may result in at times failure to fully saturate fabric leading to weak shape in the final product. The figure and steps following the figure describe the process. Figure Resin Transfer Moulding [http://www.ctihuatai.com/index.files/rtmstatic.gif] Strengthening of Structures The next stage of literature review will now focus on the strengthening of structures. As explained earlier the need for strengthening of structures; it is important to look at first the different methods adopted in order to strengthen the structure. The structure strengthening methods include the following. Span Shortening Pre-stressed Concrete Section Enlargement Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites. Span Shortening This is method in which length of a beam is shortening. This is achieved by installing additional supports underneath the existing members. Materials used in this process are mainly structural steel members and cast in place reinforced concrete members. The members are connected mechanically using bolts and adhesive anchors. Span shortening reduces the deflection in the beam. This can be proved by means of simple calculation. P1ÃŽÂ ´1 Let us consider a beam of length à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“L (m)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? under a load P kN undergoing a 3 point bend test. l1 Where ÃŽÂ ´ is the deflection in the beam. Let us consider a pair of equations in order to calculate deflection in the beam. ; If ratio of the deflection is taken in to account, and doubling the span length meaning l2 = 2l1. Then, Then ÃŽÂ ´2 = 8 x ÃŽÂ ´1; this means that central deflection will become 8 times. So to conclude the method shorter the span, less deflection will occur at the centre. Pre stressed Concrete Pre stressed concrete is a method used for overcoming concreteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s natural weakness in tension. Pre-stressing tendons generally made of high tensile steel rods are used to provide clamping load that generates compressive stresses which balances out the tensile stress that would be experienced by the concrete beams due to bending [7]. The process of pre stressing can be achieved in three ways: pre tensioned concrete, bonded or un-bonded post-tensioned concrete. However the method is mainly used for civil engineering and construction projects. The figure below gives an indication of the method. Figure Pre Stressing Method [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/BRIDGE/pt/images/pt102.gif] Section Enlargement In simple terms, it is when the second moment of area is changed. The method involves placing an additional bonded reinforcement concrete to an existing structure member in the form of an overlay or a jacket. The main advantage of this technique is that it increases the load bearing capacity or stiffness. The technique reduces bending and shear forces on overstressed beams. Structure Strengthening using FRP Composites Fibre reinforced polymers are applied to strengthen structure. There method can be primarily divided in to two categories. One is the strengthening of structure at manufacturing phase and other is after manufacturing. The technique used to strengthen structure at manufacturing phase is known as Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement (NSMR) and the strengthening of structure can be achieved once the manufacturing is completed is by external plate bonding method. Near Surface Mounted Reinforcement Near surface mounted reinforcement is one of the latest and most promising techniques to be considered when strengthening concrete structures. Using FRP instead of steel in this technique has many advantages such as its better resistance to corrosion, quick and easy installation due to light weight. When compared with external bonding method, the NSMR has many advantages such as amount of site installation work is reduced for example removal of plaster, etc. second advantage being that NSMR is less prone to de-bonding from concrete substrate. NSMR bars can be easily anchored into adjacent members to prevent failures due to de-bonding. This feature is very important when considering flexural strengthening. NSMR bars can be easily pre-stressed. As the bars are covered by cover of concrete, so they are less exposed to accidental impact or mechanical damage such as fire or wear and tear. As the NSMR technique is new, the knowledge on this technique is limited than that of externally bonded reinforcement. In recent studies CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) NSM reinforcements have been widely used to strengthen structures. The following general steps must be performed during the strengthening. Sawing up slots in concrete cover, depth of the structure is dependent on the product used. After sawing of slots, careful cleaning is required. If using an epoxy system, the slots where the bars are to be installed must be dry before bonding. If cement system is used then the surface must be wet. Adhesive is applied in the slot when using epoxy system or cement mortar is used when using cement system. The figure below gives an indication of the technique. Figure Near Surface mounted Reinforcement technique [http://msw.mcmaster.ca/~koranyy/Photos/NSM-vertical.jpg] In the above figure it can be seen that a carbon fibre rope is placed in the centre of the brick wall and an epoxy paste is applied. The figure on the left is for vertical reinforcement and the figure on the right is for horizontal reinforcement. The second part of the images is the finished version of structure once the method is completed. The application of this technique is mainly on flat surfaces and is suitable for strengthening in bending. The process is also helpful in increasing the shear capacity of the beams. The next method considered for structure strengthening using FRP composites is external plate bonding. However it is first important to compare the advantage of using composites over steel plates. These are explained in the next segment of the report. External Plate Bonding The general principle of external plate bonding method is that in this method transfer of stresses takes place from the structural element to the additional plates that are adhered or bolted. Whilst strengthening structure many problems are faced such as. Load Increases: Structure with externally bonded plates has capacity to accept higher live loads for example in factories where heavy machines are installed. External plate bonding also reduces deformation and is also helpful where vibrations are an issue. Damage to Structural Parts: it can be utilized in cases where the building has been damaged due to fire or vehicle collision. Improvement in suitability: This can be achieved by limiting deflection and reducing crack widths and stresses. Modification of Structural System: Plate bonding provides a cost effective solution where structure has been weakened by removal of walls and columns or opening cuts. Errors in planning or construction: Plate bonding provides solution to earlier design errors and calculation errors. In general terms external plate bonding can reduce deflection thus limit cracking as well as increase the load bearing capacity and also increase the flexural strength and finally improve resistance to shear in certain cases. As the method of plate bonding can be achieved by both using Composites as well as steel plates so it is important to understand the advantage of composite over steel plates. This analysis will be carried on three grounds namely technical, practical/application and Economic. The table on the next page summarizes the technical differences between the composite and steel plates Composite Steel Plates High tensile strength of Carbon fibre (5650N/mm2) Tensile strength of steel is (235 N/mm2) No corrosion Highly prone to corrosion Strength to weight ratio is higher Strength to weight ratio is lower Table Technical differences between Composite and Steel Plates When performing practical application on site; installation of steel plates requires an extensive amount of work such as drilling holes in plates, wrapping plates and bolting the plates. Where as the composite plates would require very limited work such as bonding to the metal plate using an epoxy. Table 2 summarizes the economic differences Potential Cost Composite Steel Plates High Low Volume Typically 10-50% of steel Relatively high Adhesive smaller area of plates required so less adhesive Area of plates is high so higher amount of adhesive Preparation Off site On site Limited Limited Extensive Extensive Labour Requirement Low High Equipment Low High Temporary support None Yes Time Fast Slow Table Economic Differences between Composite and steel plates The application of the plates externally can be varying such as if the surface is horizontal than FRP is applied horizontally or in the U shape. If the structure is a circular column then FRP is applied by wrapping around it. Wrapping sheets have fabrics in same direction or bi-directional. One thing to be considered when using FRP is that it needs to be protected from fire. An FRP plate applied to the bottom of structure (tension face) increases the strength of beam and reduces deflection. Where as application of FRP strips attached in U shape around the sides and bottom of beam increases shear resistance. Wrapping of sheets around column results in higher strength and restrains lateral expansion of columns. The figures below give an example of application of FRP composite to structure. (A) (B) (C) Figure Strengthening using FRP Composites [http://sites.google.com/site/frpstrengthening/frpdrawing2-custom-size-398-103.jpg] [http://www.structural.net/Article_Images/Figure%204.JPG] Figure A and B look at plate bonding and figure C gives an indication of wrapping columns. Discussion The project is currently in its research phase. The topics covered in the literature review section of the report are vital as it is important to gain knowledge about the subject and understand its applications in the real engineering world. The future work in the project will involve an additional literature review for structural strengthening and the next stage will be to set up a meeting with the supervisor to discuss the experiment as to what needs to be performed. Once this is completed the project plan will be reviewed to meet the final submission date of the thesis as mentioned earlier in the deliverables section. To conclude the test to be carried out for this purpose will be a 3 point bend test and 4 point bend test and thus the results will be concluded. Bibliography Dag Linghoff (2009), Thin Walled Structures, Carbon-fibre Composites for strengthening steel structures, volume 47 pages 1048-1058. U.Meier (1995), Construction and Building Materials, Strengthening of structures using carbon fibre epoxy composites, volume 9 issue 6 pages 341-351. A.R.Rahai and M.M.Alinia (2008), Construction and Building Materials, Performance Evaluation and Strengthening of concrete structures with composite bracing members, volume 22 issue 10 pages 2100-2110 J.G.Broughton (1997), International

Claude Monet: Grainstack (Sunset) Essays -- essays papers

Claude Monet: Grainstack (Sunset) Claude Monet's Grainstack (Sunset) is the painting I chose from the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Monet was an impressionist painter in France, and did most of his work at his home at Giverny. Impressionism got its name from a painting that Monet painted, Impression Sunrise. Impressionist paintings are put into a category based on characteristics such as light that draws attention to objects, rough textures, and visual pleasure that the viewer receives upon looking at the paintings. Impressionist paintings are art for arts sake and focus on leisure and nature. These paintings are generally the most well known and popular paintings because of their attractive appearance. The Grainstack (Sunset) was painted between 1890 and 1891, and is a part of Monet?s first true series paintings. During the time of this series was painted, there was a lot of unrest going on in Europe. Many of the major cities were experiencing industrial growth, and it was causing the people to suffer from a magnitude of social problems. There were high rates of suicide, and anarchist groups. Over the years to follow, 1889 to 1894, there were at least 600 strikes involving 120,000 workers. There were bombings, raids, and wide spread fear across the country. It was during this time period that Monet was going to establish himself as one of the major painters of the country. As the viewer looks at this painting, they are taken into a rural scene. You notice first the grainstack as the major object in the painting. As you move around the painting, there are many striking areas of light. The sunset causes a brilliant display of colors around the scene. The sky is fading in the background as the sun sunsets. There is a small amount of blue still hanging in the sky, and under that a large portion of a yellow hue from the sun setting. As the suns sets further it cause a pink color above the land. The sunset has cause the grainstacks color to darken. You can see that the light left in the scene is on the other side of the stack. There is a shadow cast of the back side, making the stacks top dark brown, and the bottom a dark red. The rural scene in the Grainstack (Sunset), as well as the other grainstacks in his series paintings, all basically share many of the same characteristics. The haystacks are never overwhelmed by light. As in the Grainstac... ...ainting and finding out what is behind it makes the work a lot more interesting. Monet?s grainstacks have not only taught me about him as a painter and why he painted as he did, but also about France and what was going on during this period. His works are a beautiful representation of what life was like, and what Monet was experiencing right in his own backyard. Bibliography Hayes Tucker, Paul. Monet in the 90?s: Series Paintings. Boston Museum of Fine Arts; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Hayes Tucker, Paul. Monet in the Twentieth Century. Boston Museum of Fine Arts; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Frascina, Francis. Modernity and Modernism: French Painting in the Nineteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Gerdts, William H. Monet?s Giverny: An Impressionists Colony. New York: Abbeville Press, 1993. Copplestone, Trewin. The History and Techniques of the Great Masters: Monet. New Jersey: Chartwell Books, 1987. Tomkins, Calvin. ?Monet?s Illusion.? Vanity Fair. July 1995, Vol. 58 Issue 7: pg. 96-102. Hurwitz, Laurie S. ?The Well Planned Spontaneity of Claude Monet.? American Artist. March 1996, Vol. 60 Issue 644: pg. 56-64. Claude Monet: Grainstack (Sunset) Essays -- essays papers Claude Monet: Grainstack (Sunset) Claude Monet's Grainstack (Sunset) is the painting I chose from the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Monet was an impressionist painter in France, and did most of his work at his home at Giverny. Impressionism got its name from a painting that Monet painted, Impression Sunrise. Impressionist paintings are put into a category based on characteristics such as light that draws attention to objects, rough textures, and visual pleasure that the viewer receives upon looking at the paintings. Impressionist paintings are art for arts sake and focus on leisure and nature. These paintings are generally the most well known and popular paintings because of their attractive appearance. The Grainstack (Sunset) was painted between 1890 and 1891, and is a part of Monet?s first true series paintings. During the time of this series was painted, there was a lot of unrest going on in Europe. Many of the major cities were experiencing industrial growth, and it was causing the people to suffer from a magnitude of social problems. There were high rates of suicide, and anarchist groups. Over the years to follow, 1889 to 1894, there were at least 600 strikes involving 120,000 workers. There were bombings, raids, and wide spread fear across the country. It was during this time period that Monet was going to establish himself as one of the major painters of the country. As the viewer looks at this painting, they are taken into a rural scene. You notice first the grainstack as the major object in the painting. As you move around the painting, there are many striking areas of light. The sunset causes a brilliant display of colors around the scene. The sky is fading in the background as the sun sunsets. There is a small amount of blue still hanging in the sky, and under that a large portion of a yellow hue from the sun setting. As the suns sets further it cause a pink color above the land. The sunset has cause the grainstacks color to darken. You can see that the light left in the scene is on the other side of the stack. There is a shadow cast of the back side, making the stacks top dark brown, and the bottom a dark red. The rural scene in the Grainstack (Sunset), as well as the other grainstacks in his series paintings, all basically share many of the same characteristics. The haystacks are never overwhelmed by light. As in the Grainstac... ...ainting and finding out what is behind it makes the work a lot more interesting. Monet?s grainstacks have not only taught me about him as a painter and why he painted as he did, but also about France and what was going on during this period. His works are a beautiful representation of what life was like, and what Monet was experiencing right in his own backyard. Bibliography Hayes Tucker, Paul. Monet in the 90?s: Series Paintings. Boston Museum of Fine Arts; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Hayes Tucker, Paul. Monet in the Twentieth Century. Boston Museum of Fine Arts; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998. Frascina, Francis. Modernity and Modernism: French Painting in the Nineteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Gerdts, William H. Monet?s Giverny: An Impressionists Colony. New York: Abbeville Press, 1993. Copplestone, Trewin. The History and Techniques of the Great Masters: Monet. New Jersey: Chartwell Books, 1987. Tomkins, Calvin. ?Monet?s Illusion.? Vanity Fair. July 1995, Vol. 58 Issue 7: pg. 96-102. Hurwitz, Laurie S. ?The Well Planned Spontaneity of Claude Monet.? American Artist. March 1996, Vol. 60 Issue 644: pg. 56-64.

Imprisonment became widespread in the United States Essay

The United States has a big prison population because laws were designed to stop drug traffickers caught small-time dealers. Crime is defined as an act that the law makes punishable and it’s often called an offense. A form of punishment would be incarceration. Incarceration action is the act of placing someone in prison. It serves as a form of punishment for criminals due to their actions towards the law. They take their freedom. As the United States incarceration rate continues to increase more people are locked behind bars. They are constantly being watched over with no privacy. Imprisonment as a form of criminal punishment only became widespread in the United States just before the American Revolution. America has around 5% of the world’s population and 25% are prisoners. Since 1980, the number of increased citizens in the United States has more than quadrupled. More than out of a 100 citizens are locked behind bars and because of This America is known for having the largest prison population in the world. The first prisons in the independent United States were established as †penitentiaries† to represent their prisoners as religious † penitents,† serving time for their sins. Early penitentiaries gained national and international attention for their high goals of perfecting society through incarceration. However, they soon became as overcrowded. This past July in the speech to the NAACP, President Obama stated that the real reason why the U.S prison population is so high is that over the last decade they have locked up more no nviolent drug offenders than ever before. Guns, violent crimes, and punishments are pressing issues in the United States. The relationship between these three issues is that they are all debatable and provoke the proper role of guns in American society. In state courts in the mid-1990’s the average year’s sentence to a gun, offenders average up to four years. They are punished in many different ways once they are initially arrested. By the late 19th Century, outrage over prison conditions led to the †reformatory† movement, which attempted to redefine prison’s role as that of † reforming† inmates into model citizens, by providing education, work, and counseling. Rehabilitation is the act of restoring something to its original state. The goal of rehabilitation is to help people learn how to care for a body that How works differently, maintain a high level of health and restore oneself. The rehabilitation of offenders is a key feature of the modern UK system. Rehab is the only place where patients receive the proper treatment for their mental illness that causes or contributes to their addiction. Some people may feel that if you commit a crime you must be punished but rehabilitates might disagree. The rehabilitation conveys a message that the state has an obligation to help those who fall short of the standards. Psychologically we don’t know what individuals may be going through. Not giving them a free pass and saying their right but different actions can be taken into consideration. For example, rehab is a way to help individuals to not go back and do the same thing. Depending on the type of crime committed, the convicted may get the c hoice to have a plea bargain. Retribution is a punishment inflicted on someone as vengeance for a wrong or criminal act. The purpose of retribution is active to injure criminal offenders. Retribution is at the heart of just about all judicial systems that deal with law and order. One example of retribution would be if you kill someone you will get a death penalty for it. Some people may feel that is should not be helpful and that it should treat the offending conduct as wrong. They also feel that punishing them is the best way to deal with them. Crime is the result of choices made by the individual. Retributivism recognizes the offender status by asking that they take responsibility for what they have done rather than making excuses for it. Retributivism also pushes that more serious crimes should be punished more seriously. Many people would look at retributivism as â€Å" an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth† situation. However, they just strongly believe that if you commit a crime or do wrong you must pay the consequences. Regardless if one situation is more serious than the other. In my opinion, I feel that if someone violated the law they should be dealt with accordingly. The first thing someone would think of when they do something wrong is that they are going to jail. However, that is not the only problem. I feel that race has a lot to do with it as well. This is why crime and incarceration are so big in the united states.